Teaching Methods

Different pedagogical methods are useful for a wide variety of teaching contexts. The list below is not exhaustive, but it is a great place to begin your search for the right approach to your students and course objectives.

Lecturing

This long-standing method can be adapted to large or small class settings, and the following links can help you develop effective lectures in different courses.

The lecture is generally considered to be the oldest teaching method, and today it is still the most widely used method of instruction. But as knowledge through research into teaching and learning continues to grow, the question arises: Is the lecture an effective method? The answer is, “Yes, but…”

Yes, the lecture has a purpose in today’s universities. Lectures are particularly good for:

• Presenting up-to-date information 
• Summarizing material 
• Adapting material to the background and interests of a particular group of students 
• Focusing on key concepts, principles, or ideas (McKeachie, 2002, p. 53)

But new advancements in understanding about memory, motivation, and learning indicate a need to rethink how to give a lecture. Two separate issues, both key to memory and motivation, need to be considered: the organization of the lecture, and the delivery of the lecture

Discussions

Leading discussions in a can be a useful way to engage students and examine new ideas. 

By engaging students in discussion, instructors can help them think about the subject matter in previously unexplored ways, learn to evaluate their own and others’ perspectives, articulate what they’ve learned or what needs to be clarified, and even provide motivation to study the topic further (McKeachie, 2002). Following are some suggestions for effective class discussions:

• Create a classroom environment that is conducive to discussions. Students will participate more readily if they feel accepted by other students and experience a sense of belonging in the class (McGlynn, 2001). You can facilitate this by greeting students each day, helping students get to know each other by doing an icebreaker activity early in the semester, learning your students’ names, and calling on them in positive ways. If possible, be available to talk with them before and after class. 
• Be prepared with a variety of discussion starters in case the interaction stalls. Here are some you may want to try (McKeachie, 2002, pp. 32-37).

Start with a common experience – something all your students can relate to. You can use a demonstration, a film clip, a cartoon, a story or anecdote, a personal experience, or an excerpt from a reading that has been assigned.

Start with a controversy. Chose an issue that fits with the material you are teaching. Try to use a controversy that will elicit discussion from both viewpoints; when everyone agrees on one position, there is little room for discussion...

Questioning Strategies

A teacher can use questions strategically to facilitate a better connection between students and course material.

Effective questioning sessions in classroom require advance preparation. While some instructors may be skilled in extemporaneous questioning, many find that such questions have phrasing problems, are not organized in a logical sequence, or do not require students to use the desired thinking skills. Below are some steps for planning questions.

• Decide on your goal or purpose for asking questions. Your goal should help you determine what levels of questions you will ask. 
• Select the content for questioning. Choose material which you consider important rather than trivial. Students will study and learn based on the questions you ask. Do not mislead them by emphasizing less important material. 
• Phrase your questions carefully. 
• When planning your questions try to anticipate possible student responses. 
• Until you are quite skilled at classroom questioning you should write your main questions in advance. Arrange your list in some logical sequence (specific to general, lower level to higher level, a sequence related to content). Should you think of additional or better questions during the questioning process, you can be flexible and add those or substitute them for some of your planned questions. However, having a prepared list of questions will help to assure that you ask questions appropriate for your goals and representative of the important material.

Inquiry-Based Learning

Understanding the phases and overall process of disciplined inquiry can help teachers and students in the pursuit of shared discovery and innovative research. 

Problem-Based Learning

Serious thinking often begins with the mutual attempt to solve problems inside and outside of the classroom.

Active Learning

A wide variety of approaches characterize this departure from static modes of course delivery.

Active learning, as a term, may raise some eyebrows! One instructor at Illinois has said that there is no such thing as passive learning, so why should we call something active learning? This is like saying ATM machine—there is redundancy in the term. He says that all learning is active since learning is the cognitive activity happening in the brain. Marchese (1997) wrote, “Active learning has the ring of a slogan; passive learning is an oxymoron”. He goes on to say that he prefers the language of deep and surface learning—the search for meaning and understanding vs. short-term memorization of facts, equations, and concepts, or making connections with the material and building new mental models vs. superficial engagement with the subject matter. Active learning, then, refers to the teaching approaches, strategies and learning activities that promote active engagement with the material and lead to deep learning.

How do people generally define “active learning”?

• Bonwell (1991): It is proposed that strategies promoting active learning be defined as instructional activities involving students in doing things and thinking about what they are doing. 
• Meyers and Jones (1993): Active learning involves providing opportunities for students to meaningfully talk and listen, write, read, and reflect on the content, ideas, issues, and concerns of an academic subject.”

Case Study Method 

The use of real and hypothetical cases has been used effectively in a variety of fields from legal studies to business.

Cases are narratives, situations, select data samplings, or statements that present unresolved and provocative issues, situations, or questions (Indiana University Teaching Handbook, 2005). The case method is a participatory, discussion-based way of learning where students gain skills in critical thinking, communication, and group dynamics. It is a type of problem-based learning. Often seen in the professional schools of medicine, law, and business, the case method is now used successfully in disciplines such as engineering, chemistry, education, and journalism. Students can work through a case during class as a whole or in small groups...

Cases can be any of the following (Indiana University Teaching Handbook, 2005):

• Finished cases based on facts—these are useful for purposes of analysis.
• Unfinished open-ended cases—where the results are not clear yet, as such, the student must predict, make suggestions, and conclusions.
• Fictional cases that the teacher writes—the difficulty is in writing these cases so they reflect a real world situation.
• Original documents, such as the use of news articles, reports, data sets, ethnographican interesting case would be to provide two sides of a scenario...

Cooperative Learning

In contrast to simple group learning, this method of teaching relies on positive interdependence as a basis for deep learning in a variety of disciplines.

Two widely accepted principles about learning—learners construct their own knowledge and learning is an inherently social phenomenon—support the use of group learning. Working in small groups provides learners with opportunities to articulate ideas and understandings, uncover assumptions and misconceptions, and negotiate with others to create products or reach consensus. Group activities enable students to discover deeper meaning in the content and improve thinking skills. The most effective use of group work is that which engages students with higher-level content that is thought-provoking, difficult to understand, or has multiple interpretations.

Group learning is referred to by the terms collaborative and cooperative learning. Group activities can be collaborative or cooperative, informal to formal, and short to long.

• Informal groups are temporary, with little or no time spent on assigning people to groups, getting into groups, or assigning roles. They last one session or less and are used to ensure cognitive processing and engagement in learning. They require little preparation and are easy to use in both lecture and discussion classes.

• Formal groups are formed by the instructor and may stay together for an extended time (weeks or even the entire semester). The instructor typically assigns roles, specifies the objective of the task, explains the cooperative learning structure to be used, monitors both student learning and group functioning, and helps students process how well their groups worked. One type of formal group is the student team—a stable group that works on major course projects and often involves peer evaluation...

• Team Projects.  The use of structured teams can accomplish a wide-range of goals, both inside and out of the classroom.  Learn more about this method of structuring courses and projects.

Team Projects

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